FORM THREE HISTORY, TOPIC NO 1: ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM AND AFRICAN REACTION

Introduction

Colonization of the African continent by European capitalist powers is a stage in the development of capitalism. That is the stage of modern imperialism whose survival largely depended on intensive exploitation of non-capitalist societies abroad. The rise of modern imperialism was double process.

1. It was the development of capitalism in Europe, transforming from commercial through industrial capitalism to monopoly or financial capitalism.
2. It was the process of underdevelopment for the non-capitalist world, Africa in particular.

At the stage of modern imperialism colonization was made possible because of the widening gap in economic and technological development between the European capitalists and Africa.

STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM.

A.     Mercantilism or Commercial Capitalism.

Mercantilism was an economic policy of European international (foreign trade) based on the collection of bullions (gold and silver) as a measure of nations wealth. This was the first stage of Capitalism which developed between 1400 to 1750.

Characteristics of Mercantilism Capitalism.

1.  Bullionism: Throughout the mercantile era much emphasizes was devoted to the collection of Gold and Silver (Bullions). The collection of bullions was the best way to guarantee the security, power and prestige of the mercantile nations.
2. Colonial expansionism: Colonies existed primarily for the strengthening and enrichment of their mother countries. They supplied them with raw materials which they could not produce.
3.  National Unification: National unification was a product of the demise of feudalism and the rise of the centralized states. National unification was a necessary step towards internationalization of trade.
4.  Protectionism: This was erected mainly to give monopoly rights to the merchants over commerce. The English navigation acts of the 17th century and the Corn Laws of 1556 were set up to protect the English merchants from foreign interference.
5.  Militarism: Mercantilism was associated with the establishment of large standing armies such as the navy. These armies were useful in safeguarding mercantile nations, piracing on high seas and escorting merchant ship.
6.  Populationism: Mercantilism favoured the growth of population because they wanted labour force. With high population labour would be abundant and so production could be cheap.

B. Competitive Capitalism (Free trade Capitalism)

This was the stage in the development of capitalism after mercantilism. This stage was featured by free competition among the industrial capitalists with much concentration on industrial production. This period started from 1740's and ended in 1870 when new stage of capitalism (Monopoly Capitalism) came in existence. It known as competitive capitalism because it was governed with free competition in production of raw materials, wealth and discoveries of different productive forces which facilitated and quickened industrial production.

Characteristics of Competitive Capitalism.

1. The phase was characterized by the rise of large-scale industries, which brought about industrial revolution.
2. It was a free trade system with minimal government tariff policies.
3. Massive introduction of machines which easened production.
4. State played minimal role in production as this this was left to individuals.
5. Raw materials were necessary, therefore there was important of raw materials.
6. There was no monopoly of internal and foreign markets by few capitalists because none of the competitors was strong enough to eliminate the others from the competition.
7. There was a sensational speeding up of transportation and communication in Europe than ever before.

In free trade imperialism, palm oil, coconut and other oil products were highly needed as Lubricants of the machines and for soap manufacturing. Free trade system continued up to 1870. By this time due to contradiction in the capitalist’s system free trade go to monopoly capitalism.

C. Monopoly Capitalism (Imperialism)

Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism. Generally, Imperialism is the foreign policy of big capitalists countries which based on crossing of one's boundary to another backward country for extending power, maximization profit and exercise of political influence through military force or by acquiring colonies. Monopoly capitalism began when free capitalist enterprises reached their climax in 1860's and 1870's.

Characteristics of Monopoly Capitalism.

1. Concentration and centralization of capital in few hands because of the economic slump of 1873. The few capitalists who survived combined their capital to form big monopolies.
2. The merging of monopoly and industrial capital to form financial capital. In a situation of competition only these enterprises which combined money and production survived.
3. Export of Capital. It was the result of concentration, centralization and combination of industrial capital and banking capital to form financial (oligarchy). They need to export capital arose. Therefore expansionism became an important and crucial to monopoly capitalists.
4. Formation of international capitalist monopolies which divided the world among themselves. These monopolies first of all divided the market between themselves. When their profit outgrew, monopolies started close its border to different countries for control of foreign markets, sources of raw materials and spheres of capital investments.
5. Territorial division and re-division of the world among the imperialist nations. The division of the world among capitalist powers was completed by 1870's and every part of the world was already been taken.

THE COLONIZATION PROCESS.

Colonization of Africa involved three stage or process.

      A.     Penetration of European imperialist powers into Africa. This started with the coming of       colonial agents such as explorers from 1840's, Missionaries in the 1860's and traders in 1860's. These imperialist agents were financed by European powers and individual capitalists to came in Africa and to pave the way ready for colonization.

    B.     The Scramble for and Partition of the continent. The activities of the colonialist’s agents caused intensive scramble for sphere of influence among the imperialist powers. The scramble for Africa caused serious conflicts which could lead to war among the imperialist powers. Thus to avoid this, the imperialist powers had to convene the Berlin conference in 1884-1885 so as to divide African among imperialist powers peacefully.

    C.     Imposition of Colonial Rule. This was done after the partition of African continent through treaties, military violence and collaboration.

A. THE COMING OF COLONIAL AGENTS

Before colonialism the colonial agents came to Africa to prepare her for colonization. Agents of colonialism was the individual groups of people including explorers, missionaries and traders through which their activities aided colonialists in the process of colonizing Africa.

1.      Explorers

This was the first group of European to come in Africa, its major interest being geographical discoveries. Some of explorers were sent by societies like Royal Geographical Society for instance in 1856 sent two officers i.e. Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke. Another was London Missionary Society that sent Dr. David Livingstone and later Henry Morton Stanley.

2.      Missionaries

This was the second group of colonial agents which had several organized societies which operated in East Africa between 1840 to 1914. The first arrivals were German Missionaries working for the Church Missionary Society, they were Johan Krapf (1884), Johan Rebman (1886) and Johan Erhad (1849). In 1863 a group of Holy Ghost Father (French) arrived from Re-Union and established a station at Bagamoyo. What to note here is that, it is from those early centres that Christian missionaries started expanding their influence throughout East Africa and in so doing they ended up acting as agents/forerunners of colonialism.

3. Traders and Chartered Companies.

The third agent of colonization was the traders and trading companies. European traders came in large numbers to operate in Africa following the successful missions of both Explorers and Christian missionaries. The most active traders including British and German. Some traders formed small trading companies and associations to operate in Africa such as the Livingstone Central African Trading Company founded by James Stevenson in 1878. 

Also William Macknon, another Scottish formed British Indian Steam Navigation Company and in 1888, Macknon secured a charter for his company. Under the royal Charter the name of the company changed to Imperial British East African Company (IBEACO).

Roles played by colonial Agents in colonizing Africa.

1.  Missionaries often invited their home governments to occupy areas they worked. In case they faced resistance or hostility from Africa they would be assured of security. In society like Buganda Christian Missionaries helped to overthrow Kabaka Mwannga who was then replaced by his son Daudi Chwa because Mwanga hindered in promotion of British colonial interest.
2. The colonial agents facilitated the spread of Christianity. Missionaries for example soften the hearts and minds of Christian African converts to the extend not resisting colonization.
3.  In some societies they contributed to internal division and weakening the state. Example in Buganda they divided people along religious lines. This caused conflicts and war between Catholic and Protests.
4. They were in the forefront in promoting legitimate trade in order to protect the economic interest of their home colonial powers as they increased desire for cheaper sources of raw materials and markets.
5. The explorers mapped the interior of East Africa, example the publication of Jacob Erhadits in 1856 also in 1872, David Livingstone sent several maps to London giving the location of Caravan routes, lakes and major rivers of Tanganyika.
6. They provided important geographical information, for example Rebman discovered Mount Kilimanjaro in 1848, Krapf became the first European to see Mount Kenya in 1849 and John Speke discovered the sources of river Nile in 1862.
7. Explorers established good working relations with African as they came across with which eased the work of Christian Missionaries, Traders and Chartered Companies. For example through Henry Morton Stanley, the Kabaka of Buganda requested for Christian Missionaries to come and operate on his Kingdom. Krapf write the first Swahili Dictionary and grammar also translated the New Testament into Swahili, making it easy for the later Christians Missionaries groups.
8. Missionaries provided education to the people who later became instruments in the colonization process of Africa
9. They signed many treaties with African leaders. The agents acted as propagandanistss and interpreters. For example, Moffat a missionary who stayed in Ndebele land for more than 30 years was a useful interpreter to British South Africa Company (BSAC).
10. They fought for abolition of slavery and slave trade and established legitimate trade which replaced slave trade.

Roles played by Chartered Companies in colonization of Africa.

1. The companies provided initial manpower for administration of British and Germany areas of influence. For instance in West Africa there were Royal Niger Company under George Goldie who preserve the entire Niger area for British and soon formed the National African Company which was amalgamation of several trading firms.
2. They financed the administration in colonies on behalf of their respective home government which saved the government from unnecessary spending.
3. They assisted their home government in the development of infrastructure like roads, railways, construction of administrative posts etc.
4. They  created security organs, which improved security and defense against African resistance.
5. They provided relevant information about the economic potentiality of Africans which attracted European white settlers.
6. They signed treaties with African chiefs on behalf of the colonial government like in Baganda, Ankole, Toro, Nandi and these treaties were used during the Berlin conference to claim those areas.
7. They suppressed African opposition, enforced administrative law and order and recruited policies which were used to maintain internal order, peace and stability. Example GEAC employed Arabs, Swahili, Sudanese and Baganda soldiers to counteract the coastal Arabs resistance of 1888-1889.

B. SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

Scramble

Literally the word scramble means a fight, scuffle or struggle for something. It has been applied in the

context of Africa to refer to a sudden rush of European nations towards Africa with the aim of economic exploitation, in the later half of 19^th  century, which witnessed various imperialist nations trying to tear up the African continent which included Britain, France as the pioneers later joined by Germany in 1880s, Portugal, Italy, Belgium and other European Nations.

Partition.

This means to slice, to divide or to break some thing into pieces. In the contest of African continent it

definitely refers to the process where by African continent was divided into pieces among the European imperialist countries into colonial possession in the last quarter of 19^th century.

Why Africa became the target in that particular period not before?

•  The Monroe doctrine, it was advanced by Monroe the president of USA by then after the American civil war of 1861-1865 it was all about warning Europeans nations not to involve in American issues, thus turned to Africa as an alternative.
•  Africa was the only part in the world that had not been occupied, Britain had occupied Canada Australia New Zealand India, and thus Africa became a target to many European Nations.
• Reports delivered by the agents of colonialism played also a big role for Africa to become a target they penetrated the interior and fed the imperialists the economic potentiality that is found in Africa
•  The availability of vast land with fertile soils in Africa also made Africa to become a target of imperialist to make abnormal profit through the exploitation of African cheap labor
•  Another factor that made Africa to become the target in that particular period was the new idea about colonies, had changed from mere settlement of European population to an idea of protecting industrial market by seizing colonies abroad.

Causes for the scramble for and partition of Africa in the last quarter of 19^th century by European powers.

The scramble of Africa reached her zenith towards the last quarter of 19^th century and a result to solve the problem Africa was partitioned into colonial possession among the imperialist nations the forces behind the scramble for Africa is still appoint of contention among various Historians.

•  The Euro-centric historian argues that the cause for the colonization of Africa was due to humanitarian reasons i.e. to spread “civilization” in Africa, abolition of slave trade etc.
• While the Afro- centric/Marxist historians refute the above argument and argue that the causes of the scramble were development of imperialism especially during the stage of industrial revolution in Europe in 1750.

A. Industrial Revolution/economic factor 

Industrial revolution in Europe was the major cause of colonization of Africa; it brought contradictions within the capitalist economies whereby, Africa became a solution to solve those contradictions. The rise of monopoly capitalism in Europe changed the industrial environment of Europe. Up to 18770’s Britain dominated the world market and it was popularly known as the worker shop of the world, because of her industrial hegemony.         

Her industrial supremacy was being increasingly challenged by France, USA and Germany, the world market was becoming smaller and smaller as the industrialized countries were competing for the same market, such contradiction prompted the colonization of Africa that was a potential markets for European finished industrial goods. Industrial capitalism led to;

•  It led to the rise of surplus population in Europe whereby there was unemployment, high crime rate, prostitution, insane, and idlers, that failed to fit in the new industrialized Europe thus a search for area of settlement and employment hence colonization of Africa which aimed at forestalling violent social upheavals in the capitalist countries.
•  Industrial revolution led to the rise of workers movement and proletariazation in Europe or trade unions like Chartism, Luddism and new model trade unions who demanded high payment, good working condition, and the reduction of working hours. This made production in Europe very expensive and fall in profits of the bourgeoisie.
•  Application of hostile tariffs or trade barriers within Europe, led to the abolition of free trade in 1870s as capitalism changed from competitive to monopoly stage. At this stage of capitalism it was characterized with centralization and concentration of capital that gave birth to monopolistic companies, and rise protectionism, This narrowed European markets and the solution was to come to African where super normal profits could be accumulated because raw materials could be obtained cheaply, labor was lowly paid and in most cases land was simply grabbed.
•  Overproduction and under consumption, in European market. Whereby the purchasing power of many European consumers was very low as compared to the level of production. In 1870s western European factories were producing so many cheap goods that were running out of people to sell them to; their home market was no longer enough to consume all the produce. The imperialists turned more and more to Africa. Thus the scramble and eventual Colonization of Africa in the last quarter of l9th century.
•  Scientific gains in Europe especially in the field of medicine, the discovery of quinine and chroloquine reduced the threat of malaria in Africa by imperialists hence they came and colonize Africa.
•  Development of state monopoly, the marriage of interest between the state and the bourgeois in the metro pole influenced the export of capital and the bourgeois state used its militarism or state power to defend investment abroad by subduing any resistance in the colony
• Tendency of profit to fail in Europe. It become unprofitable to invest in the metro pole due to cut throat competition, protectionism and an Economic slump of 1873- 1893 that led to the fall of commodity prices drastically thus the cause to come in Africa where raw materials were obtained very cheaply labor was almost for free and land was in most cases simply alienated from the indigenous people.
• Role of colonial agents [men on the spot] these were the colonial agents who provided the information feedback and reported the economic potentiality of Africa that persuaded their home government to come and take over African counties. These included missionaries trades and explorers, who are own as fore runners of colonialism. They were essential ingredient of the increasingly assertive European presence of imperial control in most cases Christian missionaries’ p1ayd a significant role in promoting and shaping the advent of European colonialism, especially in the last quarter of 19th. In other words they paved way for the colonization of Africa.

B. Other Factors

1. Strategic reasons

The colonization of Africa was also motivated due to strategic reasons some areas were considered more attractive economically thus led the scramble and partition of Africa. Such areas included those that possessed minerals like gold, diamond, copper e.g. Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. These areas were strongly scrambled for by the imperialist included areas with;

•  Accessibility to the interior: the existence of internal rivers like Congo River Lake Tanganyika take Victoria and river Nile in Uganda an Sudan up to Egypt were the epicenter of the scramble of Africa and the numerical number of the population, which would act as the potential market for Europeans goods e.g. Nigeria Senegal and Uganda were also some of the factors that accelerated intensive scrambled and partition of Africa.
•  Fertility of the soil, that favored cash crops, areas such as Kenyan highlands, Botswana, Zimbabwe etc. and Presence of colonial agents especially missionaries who invited their home government to come to take over the colonies e.g. Mullatoes in Mozambique the missionaries in Buganda, Where also some of the strategic factors for colonization.
•  Numerical numbers of the population was also another strategic factor considered when struggling for colonies in Africa. Densely populated areas would work as steady market for European finished goods.

2. Prestigious reasons

The more colonies one country had the more powerful were considered, this made many European countries to scramble to get as more colonies as possible. Even less industrialized nations joined in the rush to stake a claim to part of Africa. The possession of colonies became national prestige within Europe. This was due to fanatical nationalism in which each nation insisted on superiority over the other especially on the realm of military power, national prestige and wealthy, thus intensive scramble of Africa.

3. European balance of power

The issue of balance of power was considered among the major movers of the scramble and partition of Africa. Central in this issue was the unification of Germany and Italy in 1870s. The unification of Germany was a direct threat to British and French industrial domination both of which set up vigorous search for market in Africa that later alone were followed by the Germany, thus the scramble and partition of Africa.

Balance of power in Europe can be traced in 1815 during the Vienna congress that followed the fall of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814 in the battle of waterloo. In this meeting they agreed that all European countries were supposed to equalize militarily strength economic and political. No expansion was to be done within Europe. Therefore Africa became the area of expansion for European powers hence the colonization.

4. Development of European Nationalism.

 Every European Country saw necessary to have colonies in Africa as a symbol of Nationalism. This nationalism in Europe grew to the climax especially after the Germany unification of 1871 after defeating France in the Franco-Prussian war hence the nationalism was accelerated much by the colonial agents that were in Africa such a state of affair made the scramble of Africa inevitable.

5. Darwinism theory and Monroe.

The strongest take over the weakest [survival of the fittest] Africa was weak and Europe was strong hence the colonization.

6. The Franco Prussian war of 1871.

The war between German and France, where France was defeated very badly and lost her resourceful regions for industrial advancement Alsace and Lorain to German. France decided to compensate such losses by acquiring colonies in Africa to act as source of industrial raw materials for her industries. This forced other European countries to follow, thus scramble and partition.

AREAS WHICH EXPERIENCED INTENSIVE SCRAMBLE

1. EGYPT AND NILE VALLEY.

Originated with British Imperialist with the ambition to control Egypt because of the Suez Canal and the river Nile. The Suez Càna1 was built by French engineers and it was opened in 1869 with that Britain became increasingly involved in Egyptian affairs. Any European power tempering with the Nile was regarded as a big enemy of Britain French expansionism towards the Nile.

2. THE CONGO BASIN.

The power involved were France, Belgium, Portugal and Britain; French claims over Congo Basin the claims were supported by the treaties signed between the local rulers and the French agents called DE BRAZZA Belgium had claims over the Congo Basin the claims were support by the treaties signed between France, Stanley and the local rulers. Portugal had claims over the Congo basin That Congo was very close to the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique Britain has vested imperialist interest in the Congo Basin rich agricultural land and -mineral potentialities and also existence of internal rivers and lakes for easy navigation. Such diversity interest led to intensive scramble among the imperialist nations which led to the calling of Berlin conference as to divert military confrontation.

3. NIGER DELTA BASIN.

The power involved was Britain, France and German. The source of the conflict originated in the British imperialist ambitions to control the Niger delta any power tempering with the region was regarded as a big enemy of Britain. Expansionism from Cameroon to the region alarmed the British disputes occurred among the three powers.

4. EAST AFRICA.  

The power involved was Britain and Germany as British wanted to control the source of river Nile. The controversy originates in Britain imperialist interest to control the river Nile from its source to its mouth-end. The establishment of Germany influence in East Africa claimed the British fearing of intervening with the Nile disputes occurred between the two powers. The reason for scramble was fertile soil and good climate, e.g. the Lake Region and Kilimanjaro. The 1886 and 1890 Anglo German agreement was the product of this scramble.

5. CENTRAL AFRICA.

These included countries from central and southern

6. SOUTH AFRICA.  

Powers involved were France, German, Portugal, Belgium Italy and Britain Source of conflict was the controversy in the British ambition to establish a continental corridor from Cape Town to Cairo. Each area passed by the railway has to be put under British control .The white elephant project claimed the root competition, which other European countries were not prepared to except this led to the European nation into a situation of going to war thus led to another stage to the-colonization of Africa i.e. the calling of the Berlin conference of 1 884/5.

Generally: Intensification of European scrambles in the so-called strategic region, broaden disputes andrivalries among the European contending powers. The disputes and rivalries created the war situation; the war was inevitable among the European powers. In order to solve the disputes which could occur, diplomatic initiatives were taken by chancellor Otto von Bismarck of Germany by convening Berlin conference. The conference resolved to partition Africa into colonial possession in order to avoid war among European powers which had become inevitable. The conference laid for the principle of dividing and occupying Africa which culminated into the establishment of the evil of colonialism in Africa. 

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884 -1885)

Introduction

The Berlin conference was also the second stage in the colonization of Africa after the scramble for. This stage begun from 1880’s to 1890’s. It was characterized with the intervention of late corners, in the process of scramble and partition i.e. Italy and German after their unification they became powerful and industrialized thus search for industrial raw materials and markets. The conference was convened by Otto Van Bismarck in 1884/1885 and it was attended by 27 countries including all the imperialist power, like German Britain, France, Italy, Denmark, U.S.A etc. The major aim of the conference was to divert the world from war.

Objectives of Berlin Conference.

1. To avoid military confrontation among the imperialist powers that was eminent. Among the imperialist powers especially after the joining of Germany as a late corner in the process after taking over colonies in Togo, Cameroon, South west Africa (Namibia) and what came to be known as Germany East Africa the present clay Tanzania Burundi and Rwanda. This increased the intensity of rivalries among the imperialist Nations in the scramble and partition of Africa. Thus the conferences aimed to easy the rivalries and solve the problem peacefully.
2.  To abolish slave trade and slavery in Africa and establish the so-called ‘legitimate trade’. Slave trade had been abolished long time in 1830’s. But still some European nations were still reluctant -a implement the resolution. This conference also aimed at emphasizing the abolition of slave trade in Africa and in place monopoly European companies were to be introduced to carry on the so-called ‘legitimate trade’ where European goods would be traded freely.
3.  To clear up the existing boundaries. This was the source of disputes among the imperialist powers. Especially between Britain and France who possessed indefinable areas of interest in West, Central and East Africa. And to define areas of effective occupation so that no any other country should claim the already occupied area.
4.  Bismarck also aimed on taming French hostilities, after her defeat in the Franco- Prussian war of 1871 where she lost her resourceful regions of Alsace and Lorraine to German.
5.  It aimed to enable German and Italy to join the process of scramble, following their unification, as the late corners after under going industrial revolution.
6.  It was also called as to maintain European balance of power among the European nations through equalize political and economic powers.

Why was it called by German?

•     German unification; made German to be the most powerful nation in Europe after defeating France, Denmark and Austria the European balance of power was in her favor. That’s why she was able to command other European nations.
• ·      The industrialization of German; which made German to be in need of raw materials badly of, cheap labor and area for investment, thus she wanted colonies from Africa hence called the Berlin conference.
• ·      The role of Otto Van Bismarck, he was a very ambitious leader who wanted recognition by other European leaders thus the calling of the Berlin conference.
• ·       The late coming of German in the process of scrambling and partition of Africa.   To enable her to acquire some colonies.
• ·      The hostility between France and German. Made Germany to call for this conference as to check on France expansionism in Africa, that may make her very powerful economically and militarily and able to revenge Germany in future.
•         The rise of monopoly capitalism in German which made German to extend her influence beyond her boundaries.

Resolutions/principles reached during Berlin Conference.

1. The Congo basin was declared Free State under king Leopard of Belgium and the Niger River was free for navigation to all imperialist nations. It recognized Leopard’s so-called international association as the legitimate authority in Congo basin. In return the Belgium king agreed to allow European traders and missionaries free access to the area.
2. Strong and sophisticated military weapons were prohibited to be brought in Africa. They allowed light weapons to be used in Africa. This aimed to maintain security in the colonies and to avoid the accessibility of such strong weapons to the colonized      subjects. (Africans).
3.   Effective occupation should be implemented by the imperialist Nations as a sign for claim of any colony by the imperialist nation. Administrators must be sent in the colonies. The conference agreed claim of any area would only be recognized by other European nation if it was ‘effectively occupied’ by that particular European power. This was a deliberate tactic of Bismarck to under mind British claim in the vague ‘spheres of influence.
4.  In case of resistance by Africans to the colonial Occupation, no any European country should give help to the Africans to fight fellow European. That was another resolution that was reached upon by the Berlin conference so as to make Africans defeated and colonized by the imperialists. This appeared as an alliance among the imperialist powers. 
5. All colonial powers, should take the initiative to abolish slave trade and slavery in their colonies and to allow free excess to the colonial agents in: the interior as to campaign against slave trade and spread civilization in the interior.
6. In case of any disputes among the imperialist powers they should solve it peacefully without the use of force. As to maintain solidarity and Unity in the foreign land of Africa. Using force may weaken one European power, which can also make her to be defeated by the Africans.
7.  If a nation occupies a coastal area it had to extend it legally, to the interior and to colony of another colonial master.
8.  Principle of notification. It was agreed that a power requiring any part of Africa was supposed to inform another power in order to escape misunderstanding among the powers i.e. the principle of notification among the imperialist powers.
9.  The conference also agreed that areas in Africa already proclaimed protectorate by European nations before conference should remain in their hands, such areas included the Congo and those territories which Germany had annexed like Togo South West Africa (Namibia)

Factors considered in dividing African continent.

• Early settlement of European from different countries, in some parties of Africa which were occupied by European before the Berlin conference like missionaries, traders, explorers and traveler, for example Cecil Rhodes in southern Africa John Moffat who stayed in Matebele land for about thirty years the Portuguese who stayed in Angola and Mozambique for long, the Berlin conference considered this case by giving the territories o individual European nations in favour.
• The early exploration and discoveries. Former exploration of some African region was also another factor for a certain nation to receive a certain territory, for example in case of Dr. living stone’s exploration in central Africa he drew the map of Chobe river in nowadays Zimbabwe fell under the British government which had sent Dr. living stone, in the similar case curl peters won Tanganyika for Germany.
• Strategic factors, also this factor pre determined the division of Africa region among the European nations for instance the Egyptian British question explain the reason for the timing and dividing African continent among the European powers, factors considered to be strategic included existence of rivers for easy navigation in the interior existence of minerals population and fertility of the soils.
• The treaties signed between African and European and between European county and European country were also another consideration in determining the division of the African territories among the imperialists, e.g. H. Johnson made treaties with Mangi Rindi of Kilimanjaro in July 1884 and Karl peters organized more treaties in Usambara, Uzigua, Ukami and Kilosa.
•  Influence and development in the region, this was also considered a factor to determine the division of African continent among the imperialist powers, in areas which any European power had already put some investments or had influence over it before the Berlin conference was also distributed to her, e.g. Zanzibar with the British who had already shown interest over the islands.

Impacts/effects of the Berlin Conference.

1. Berlin conference partitioned/sliced Africa among the imperialists into colonial possessions and fixed the boundaries in their interests. Britain got 27 colonies, France 12 colonies, German 9 colonies, Belgium 2 colonies etc.
2. The Berlin conference gave the international recognition to a process that has been going on quite some time. Although the conference initially aimed at solving the conflicting interest in the Congo and Niger Delta, it turned out to be conference for parceling out the whole of Africa.
3.  It led to the loss of African sovereignty/independence to the imperialist European nations who established colonial rule. After passing the act of effective occupation many imperialist nations begun to send colonial agents, administrators to take over the colonial process thus the colonization of Africa.
4. The Berlin act made necessary for imperialists to send representative to begin grabbing land of the Africans. Initially they left the administration of their spheres to the commercial East African company, and the imperial British East African company all these commercial companies aimed at maximizing profit through intensive exploitation.
5.  It led to the abolition of slave trade and the introduction of legitimate trade which benefited the imperialists. Colonial agents like missionaries and traders were sent to carry out vigorous campaign against slavery and slave trade and in place legitimate trade should be introduced, where cheap European goods should be traded in exchange with African raw materials like cotton coffee sisal palm oil ground nuts etc.
6.  It led to the suffering of African people under colonial administration especially when they resisted the colonial rule many were crushed to death. For stance between 1880s -1890s when France begun aggressive policy of wide spread colonization in West Africa. They pushed towards upper Niger. The Tukolor Empire under the leadership of al hajj Umar and the new expanding Mandika under the leadership of Samori began military campaign to oppose the French domination.
7.  The Berlin conference did not satisfy the ambitions of all imperialists nations  which led to the outbreak of First World War and Second World War Germany still searched for more colonies as to equalize with Britain and France such desires promoted conflicts.
8.  The Berlin conference divided African ethnic origin into separated colonial boundaries e.g. the Makonde in Mozambique and in Tanganyika, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanganyika, the Luo in Kenya, Sudan and Uganda.
9.  It made Africa to become a property of Europeans but not for Africans any more. They made the economies of Africa to respond to their economical problems. This created many Africa economies to become dependant to the metro pole economies, we produced what they needed and we consumed what they wanted.
10. The conference managed to divert the war which was eminent among the imperialists. While scrambling of the spheres of interests the imperialist powers were about to go to war, but the Berlin conference managed to divert the would be war.

THE PARTITION PROCESSES IN EAST AFRICA

The partition of East Africa was the outcome of the development of European monopoly capitalism, which manifested itself on the African continent in the form of colonialism. Various factors stimulated the partition of Africa and escalated the division of East Africa. In our exploration here, our main attention will focus only on those things that accelerated the scramble for and partition of East Africa, including the following;

i)             The development of commercial rivalries between Germany’s company and the British consul in Zanzibar accelerated the partition process. The British consul sought the partition of East Africa in order to monopolize trade and communication on the Tanzania mainland.

ii)           The Anglican missionaries in Uganda appealed to their government to assist them during their conflicts with Kabaka Mutesa I. The Catholics requested protection from the French; hence, they desired Uganda to be in the hands of Germans and they supported Karl Peters’ treaty with Kabaka Mutesa.

iii)          Early attempts made by King Leopold II to establish the Belgian Empire from the lower Congo to the coast of East Africa antagonized the British and Germans, who were already in the area.

iv)         Karl Peter, who arrived in East Africa in April 1884 to sign treaties with mainland Tanzania and Uganda’s Kabaka Mutesa I, embittered the British. German authority officially confirmed Bismarck annexed these treaties and the areas visited by him without consulting the sultan of Zanzibar.

v)              After the establishment of the British in Egypt, they sought to occupy Uganda and Kenya. The latter was to serve the landlocked country of Uganda and to ensure that Uganda would not fall in the hands of the rival powers, such as Germany and France, who could then control the Nile waters and turn Egypt into a desert.

vi)        The Germans also scrambled for colonies in East Africa due to the need for raw materials to support German industrialization. Manufacturers put pressure on the government to acquire colonies. Moreover, Germany was also interested in protecting French Catholic missionaries, who called upon them for protection in Uganda.

STAGES IN THE PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA

The entire process of partition began with the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 and was completed with the partition of East Africa between Germany and Britain, which took place between 1880-1890. It was completed in two stages of agreements between them. There had been antagonism between Germany, Britain, and the Sultan of Zanzibar over the area of East Africa. These clashes led to the first agreement.

Anglo-German agreement of 1886 

The Anglo-German agreement of November 1886 affected Britain, Germany and the Sultan of Zanzibar. 

Reasons for the Anglo-German Agreement of 1886

On 5^th February 1885, Karl Peters presented his treaties to Bismarck and to President Kaiser William I. The latter granted him a charter (imperial) that stated that the area visited by him was to come under German colonization. Their society was named the German East African Company (G.E.A.C.).

• ·       Due to Germany’s recognition of Karl Peter’s treaties, the British and the Sultan’s interests were threatened. The Sultan was saddened and appealed to Sir John Kirk, the British consul who was residing in South Africa, for assistance. To solve the matter peacefully, the Anglo- German agreement was obligatory.
•      British and German companies interfered with each other’s spheres of influence. In order to dissolve the rivalry between the British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C.) and the German East African Company (G.E.A.C.), they called the conference in 1886.

Terms of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1886

The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886 was between the German and the British, who together with the Sultan reached the following agreements:

• The Germans and the British recognized the Sultan’s sphere of influence, which included Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mogadishu, Merca, Brava, and 10 miles of the coastal strip.
• The territory between the Ruvuma and Tana rivers was divided into German and British spheres of influences near Lake Victoria, which is now the boundary between Tanzania and Kenya.
• The Britain agreed to support Germany’s claims to establish a customhouse at Dar es Salaam, thus becoming a virtually German possession.
• Britain agreed to recognize the German possession of Witu and its territory to the sea at Manda Bay.

Reasons for the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 (Heligoland Treaty)

•  Bismarck wanted to secure Germany’s position in Europe. But his great fear was France and Britain’s opposition. Hence, to avert this danger, he was prepared to make concessions in East Africa
•  The British protectorate of Zanzibar was to be recognized. Hence, the recognition of the British prote’ge’ by the Germans would eliminate the British grudge.
• The Island of Heligoland in the North Sea was to be given to the Germans. The Germans believed that this would be a valuable naval base.
•  In January 1890, Kabaka Mwanga signed the treaty of protectorate with Karl Peters that placed Buganda in the hands of the Germans. By then, however, Britain had already colonized Egypt in order to guard the Suez Canal. Britain did not want the source of the Nile to be under any big power, so she worked to colonize Uganda.
•  The British wanted to persuade the Sultan to cede to the Germans the ten miles of coastal strip of the mainland. The Sultan agreed to this for the equivalent of two hundred thousand dollars. Germany agreed to abandon all claims to the Witu region (north of the British sphere), which would mean the end of the Witu German Protectorate, granted in the agreement of 1886.

Terms of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890

The Germans and British dominated the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, which the Sultan played only a minor role. The following points made up the terms of the agreement:

•  Tanganyika and an island in the North Sea became Germany’s sphere of influence. This agreement is sometimes referred to as the “Heligoland Treaty” for the Germans gave up their claims to Witu.
• Zanzibar, Pemba, Kenya, and Uganda became British spheres of influence. This agreement completed the partition of East Africa on paper. What remained for the respective colonial powers was to establish their colonial administrations. Both powers left this to their chartered companies.

Effects of the Partition of East Africa

The Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 completed the partition of East Africa and came out with the following effects;

•  Dar es Salaam and Mombasa became important as main ports linked by railways.
• From 1890 to 1894 respectively, Zanzibar and Uganda were under British rule.
•  Germany took Tanganyika with its base in Dar es Salaam. Germany bought the coastal strip from the Sultan.
• These treaties culminated in the prelude to colonialism in East Africa.

Map of East Aftica showing Partition of East Africa

C. ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL CONTROL AND AFRICA REACTION

Colonialism is the political, social and economic system in which one powerful nation invades and dominated the foreign weak nation by establishing exploitative structure in a country. The country which is dominated by the powerful nation is known as a colony where by those people from powerful nation or colonizing nation, who lead the colonized country are known as colonialists. The establishment of colonial control in Africa was made effective between 1885 and 1912 whereby all African countries became under colonial rule except Ethiopia and Liberia, which were not colonized. To achieve the objectives of controlling African continent, different approaches were used by the colonial power to impose colonial rule in Africa. The type of techniques used depended on reactions posed by the Africans. These techniques were;

1.      Treaty making (Diplomacy)

European powers signed treaties with various African rulers from different territories. In most cases, these treaties served the interest of the colonizers. This was the most suitable way of imposing colonial rule over different African territories. 

Such treaties were bogus and misled the local rulers in many ways such as they promised to protect Africans rulers from external forces as well as supplying weapons. Example Dr. Karl Peters signed many treaties with Chief Mangungo of Msovero on behalf of Germany East Africa Company; Kabaka Mwanga signed treaties with Imperial British East Africa Company in 1890 and 1902 under Fredrick Lugard. After the treaties African countries fell under the control of European powers.

2.      Alliance of Collaboration

This method involves the alliance or collaboration between the colonizing power and African societies or with some local agents in order to occupy the land of neighboring   societies. These alliances intensified divisions among African societies. Example, in Tanganyika Germans collaborated with Sangu and Bena against their neighbors, the Hehe. The collaboration gave them hope of making revenge to Hehe who had been enemies for a long time.

3.      Military force and conquest

This tactics were used in areas where the colonizing power faced strong resistance from the Africans societies, military conquest was common tactic and it was employed either directly or indirectly. For example Portuguese employed military force and conquest to impose their rule in colonies of Mozambique and Angola while the British used the same tactics to administer the area led by Kabarega of Bunyoro in Uganda.

4.      Intimidation

This means creating fear among the people by European by demonstrating their military strength or capability very close to the local rulers who did not accept colonial rule. Sometimes it was the form of military training near African villages, which were reluctant and sometime it was associated with actual killings. Example Germans used this method in 1884 to force the sultan of Zanzibar to sign Karl Peter’s treaty, the British forced Jaja of Opobo to submit his Kingdom.

AFRICAN REACTION TO THE IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE.

The nature and scope of African reactions were mainly determined by the organizational structure and military strength of the given society. The ruling classes for example, were eager to preserve their political spheres and authority as well as their economic gains. The African reaction to the foreign rule can be categorized in two forms that were collaboration and resistance.

a.      Collaboration or Alliance

Collaboration means the cooperation between Africans and European invaders. It can be explained as adaptation. This method involved forming alliance with the Europeans against indigenous enemies and concluding treaties. Example of African societies, which made alliance with the Europeans were Creoles, Maasai, Baganda and Lozi.

Reasons for African collaboration.

1. Some societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable of holding out the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless to fight, as they weak military.
2.  Some African leaders sought an alliance with the Europeans as they considered that it was one of the means of avoiding confrontation and keeping off their rival neighbors. Example, the Baganda and Omukama Kasagama of Toro allied with the British because they were afraid of Kabarega of Bunyoro who was strong military.
3. African hoped to gain from the Europeans or even acquire arms from them. Examples are the Nambongo Mumia of Waga and Mutesa I of Buganda.
4. Some collaborated because they desired to have atmosphere of peace and promote human development for they had been subjected to constant war fare that disrupted the harmony and evolution of economic sector like trade in their societies.  Example Yoruba who had been constantly tortured by Ibadan, the Fante by the Asante and the Toro of Bunyoro.
5.  Most rulers collaborated because they were ignorant of European intention. They were fooled by presents and bribes and were sometime persuaded to sign treaties beyond their understanding. Example Mwanga of Buganda and in West Africa Jaja of Opobo and Samori Toure.
6. Some Africans made alliance with Europeans because they had suffered greatly from natural calamities. Therefore they sought that Europeans would bring them relief aid.  Example the Kikuyu, Maasai, the Chagga and Sambaa would have certainly resisted the imposition of colonial rule if epidemics had not exerted adverse effects.
7. Individual Africans made friendship with colonialists because they were opportunistic self-seekers hoping to acquire wealth, prestige, rewards and other presents. For example, Semei Kakunguru of Buganda, Nuwa Mbaguta of Ankole and Wanyiki of Kikuyu, all these had personal interests and ambitions.

b.      Resistance

African resistance means the situation whereby Africans showed opposition to European invasion. The resistance can further divided into two forms which include active and passive resistance         

• Armed or Active resistance

It is the form of reaction involved the use of weapons by Africans to fight against Europeans and prevent them from imposing colonial rule in their territories. Example of active or armed resistance in Africa include the Mandinka in west Africa, Majimaji in Tanganyika, Nama and Herero uprising in Namibia, Shona and Ndebele uprising in Zimbabwe and Nandi resistance in Kenya.

•  Passive resistance

Refers to unarmed opposition. It also means the adaptation of non-cooperative measures with the colonial powers but without using violence. This can be exemplified by the Pogoro of Tanzania who refused to involve in colonial activities like cotton picking.

Reasons for African resistance against colonial domination

1. Some leaders resisted colonial powers in order to defend social and political sovereignty. For example, Kabarega of Bunyoro fought the British, Mkwawa of the Hehe and Abushiri resisted the Germans in Tanganyika.
2.  Africans wanted to preserve their monopolies. Until 1890’s the African trade merchants were conducting trade between the coastal areas and the interior. For example, the Nyamwezi under Isike and the Yao under Machemba resisted Germans because the later interfered the long distance trade and wanted to control it and collect tax.
3.  African rulers resisted colonialism due to its repressive administrative and economic policies. For example, the Belgians in Congo and Germans in Namibia, Tanganyika and Togo were very repressive against the native.
4.  African wanted to defend their religious practices and culture as in the case of the Maji Maji uprising (1905-1907), the Shona and Ndebele resistance (1896-1897).
5. Some had to resist because the white man’s Christianity opposed certain African practices such as polygamy, drinking beer, spiritual and ancestral worship and human sacrifices.
6. Other societies resisted because they believed that they were politically and military strong as they unaware of European military strength. For example, Chief Machemba of Yao in Makonde believed that his troops could smash easily that of the Germany.

TYPES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES

1. Small Scale African Resistances

The African resistances against the imposition of colonial rule took place in different areas. Initially, it involved different ethnic groups led by their local leaders who organized small groups to take arms against European invaders. This kind of African resistance is considered as a small scale uprising since it covered small area. Some small-scale resistances will be discussed below;

(A) THE HEHE RESISTANCE 1891-1898

This was one among the most notable active small scale resistances, which were very fierce since they involved military action sand was well organized. The leader of this reaction was Chief Mkwawa who is also known as chief Mkwavinyika. The name Mkwavinyika means the conqueror of lands. The Hehe resistance was caused by the German occupation of several areas in Mainland Tanganyika (the present day Tanzania) such as Ugogo, Ukaguru, Usagara and Mpwapwa, which had economic importance to the Hehe ruling class. These occupied areas were potential for trade activities thus German occupation threatened the economic position of Hehe ruling class. 

Before taking up arms, Chief Mkwavinyika (Mkwawa) sent a delegation with present to meet the German administrators at the coast. The Germans responded by requesting the chief to surrender his sovereignty and they showed a disregard of the Chief Mkwavinyika's request by killing all the men in his delegation. Chief Mkwavinyika reacted by blocking all- the' caravan routes passing through the area to disrupt the German trade, hence they failed to obtain raw materials from the interior. This event angered the German rulers and decided to send a military force led by commander of German forces. Chief Mkwavinyika's force managed to defeat the German forces on 16th August 1891 at Lugalo. The defeat was associated with killing of several people, including commander of the German forces, Emil Von Zelewsky, and three hundred (300) African soldiers. The Mkwavinyika's army also captured about three (3) cannons and three hundred (300) rifles from the German forces. The defeat of German by the Hehe actually shocked the colonial administration and showed the strength of Hehe's army. After three years the German prepared their force for another attack. 

Before attacking the Hehe empire, the German administrators sent a delegation to chief Mkwavinyika which required him to pay for the war indemnity he 'had caused on Germans, recognizing the Kaiser's sovereignty, surrender the war weapons he captured at first attack, stop conquering the neighboring territory and allow the European Missionaries and traders to access the Uhehe by the routes he blocked. Chief Mkwawa rejected all the demands. 

Germans attacked the Hehe in October 1894 and managed to capture Kalenga, which was Mkwavinyika's capital. He escaped and organized a guerrilla warfare, which extended for about four years. Later on the German patrol caught up Mkwavinyika in July 1898, and surrounded him while he was very tired, sick and alone;         he decided to shoot himself rather than being captured while still alive. This marked the decline of the Hehe ruling class and the beginning of German control.

(B) THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891 - 1894

This was another reaction against Germany colonial rule which was staged by Nyarnwezi under Chief, Isike. Initially the Nyamwezi had business relations with Germans, they conducted trade together. But later on the Nyamwezi realized that the German's intention of monopolizing their trade which passed through their land to important trading centres like Ujiji; and Mwanza, controlling land and ruling them. In order to avoid the German control, Chief Isike organized his people to take up arms and closed the trade routes for number of months. Due to poor weapons Nyamwezi were defeated by the well organized and equipped German forces. In 1893 Chief Isike's fort was badly destroyed by German forces. Chief Isike decided to blow up himself together with his family ·in the gun powder magazine rather than being captured by the Germans. 

(C) THE YAO RESISTANCE

The Yao of Southern Tanganyika, under Chief Machemba, staged an active resistance against Germans, In 1890, a German force of three companies was sent to Machemba, but he defeated them. Furthermore, four companies were sent against Machemba and were also defeated by his strong forces. In 1890, German Governor summoned chief Machemba to the coast but he refused to go. When Machemba rejected to surrender, the Germans took up arms against Machemba. The German-Yao confrontation went on until 1899. This resulted into occupation of Machemba's fort in 1899. They imprisoned his followers but Chief Machemba escaped into Mozambique. This event marked the end of Yao reaction and imposition of German rule, over the region. 

(D) ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE

This was African reaction along the coastal region where rich Arabs and local merchants had invested in coconut and cereal plantations in a large scale as well as trade activities. These plantation activities depended much on the interior, but the German company suppressed slave trade, hence affected the supply of labour to plantations. This event threatened the Arabs and, local merchant plantation owners. In 1888" the company agents imposed taxes and began to collect it from all people including feudal lords and rich merchants. 

The coastal African resistance was led by Abushiri bin Salumel Hathi of Pangani. He organized his force and began to fight in August 1888, when the German company officials established themselves and hoisted the German flag in all the major coastal towns. In other cases, they opposed mosques and began to regulate the trade along caravan routes. The fighting extended to many coastal areas, thus other coastal people in Bagamoyo also joined the Abushiri's force against Germans.

The Abushiri resistance became so stiff that, the British joined the German forces by utilizing their naval forces, which had been used to suppress slave trade in the Indian Ocean, In order to make effective suppression, the German Chancellor sent major Hermann Von Wissman, a soldier and an, explorer with experience in different East African areas, He commanded German forces and recruited Mercenaries with the aim of' employing this force to crush the Abushiri uprising. These mercenaries comprised 600 Sudanese, 20 Turkish police, 400 Zulus, 21 officers and some soldier's from Tanganyika.

Starting from May, 1889, the German forces, under Major Von Wissman, were suppressing the Abushiri and regained most of the coastal towns within a few months: Finally, the leaders of this resistance were weakened, thus failing to co-ordinate their attacks. They faced strong German counter-attack. Abushiri fled to Mpwapwa in the Interior but he was weakened by Major Von Wissmans attack when German forces attacked Mpwapwa. Abushiri’s efforts were also affected by a person known as Magaya-a Jumbe orvillage headman in Usagara who betrayed him to the Germans. At the end Abushiri was captured and publicly hanged on 15^th December, 1889. 

Another coastal resistance was led by Bwana Heri of Uzigua, who fought against German forces since January 1889, when the German forces captured Saadani. Bwana Heri escaped to the interior where he built a fortress and staged a strong resistance against German forces until April 1890. Later on, Bwana Heri surrendered and ran away. After suppressing Abushiri and Bwana Heri the German forces faced another strong resistance in the southern coastal areas of Tanganyika. This was led by Hassani Bin Omari Makunganya of Kilwa. He organized and led a strong attack against German fortress in Kilwa, but he was defeated by the German forces. After his defeat, Hassan bin Omari fled to the inland where he organized another attack. However, the Germans realized his plan and pre-empted it. 

Finally, Hassan bin Omari Makunganya was captured and hanged on a mango tree in Kilwa Kivinje, in May 1890. Since then, the mango tree was used by Germans for hanging all African victims publicly so as to threaten and warn Africans not to engage in further revolts and alert those who disobeyed' the government orders. The coastal active resistance against Germans was brought to an end by the defeat and hangings of Omari bin Hassan Makunganya.

(E) THE BUNYORO RESISTANCE IN UGANDA

This resistance was organized by Kabarega against British administration in 1893. Kabarega was reacting against the Christian factions used by captain Lugard of British government to fight mortems in Buganda and later the other Moslem forces in Bunyoro. Later Kabaka Mwanga joined forces with Kabarega. This was Kabaka's response against the British since he had been accused and punished by the British commissioner of smuggling and selling of Ivory without British commissioner's consent. As he was discontented with this situation, Kabaka moved to Buddu where he organized a military force of loyal Buganda to make another attack against British administration of which he was defeated. He joined Kabarega's force again in Lango to react against the British administration. Finally, the British forces defeated both Kabarega and Kabaka's forces and' sent for exile in Seychelles in 1899. The British completely subdued Uganda by 1900, from then afterwards the British government employed Buganda agents to administer other areas of Uganda. 

(F) THE MAZRUI DYNASTY'S RESISTANCE IN KENYA 

The Mazrui dynasty in Kenya involved an Arab ruling family and rich merchants. This group of people staged resistance against the British in June 1895. This resistance aimed at fighting against the Imperial British East African Company, hoping to defeat and regain their independence. The Mazrui resistance attempted different measures, such as burning of towns along the coastal areas: The Mazrui's attack was defeated by British government when employed its puppet Rashid bin Salim. After being defeated, the Mazrui escaped to German East Africa and gave the way to British administration which began to use local merchants and their subordinates to save as local administrators as well as agents for judiciary.

(H) THE SOMALI RESISTANCE IN KENYA 

This was another active resistance staged by the Somali people of North Eastern Kenya. These people engaged in, pastoralism and lived by moving with their livestock from one place to another in search of pasture and water. This was done when they experienced decline of water and pasture in one area. Basically, the Somali people depended on land for their economic activities, but the imposition of British rule in Kenya affected their freedom of movement as it- was disturbing their plans. The Somalis reacted by carrying out a number of attacks against British in their areas. An example of he Somali attack was that made at the place known as Yonte, an area that was a British outpost. The British administration responded by sending their armed forces, which fought against Somalis and finally managed to defeat them in 1901.

(I) THE NANDI RESISTANCE.

Nandi was another important ethnic group in the interior of Kenya that resisted against the British invasion. They lived in the area of Rift Valley and occupied a fertile land used for crop production and livestock keeping. The Nandi staged resistance against the British under their leaders, Koitalel, who was later killed by the British. 

The Nandi depended on land for their economic activities, but the construction of telegraphic lines and railway across the area occupied by the Nandi prevented them from carrying out their economic activities. These British activities disrupted the Nandi's economic position. The Nandi responded against the British by making an attack on the British military positions, cutting off the telegraphic wires, attacking the British caravans passing across their territory, and raiding the railway depots. The Nandi believed that they had superior weapons and strong military to invade the British as they had done for neighboring territories. They also believed that their land would one day be occupied by foreigners. This belief had been prophesied by Kimnyoles Prophet. 

The British government responded to the. Nandi attacks by sending a number of expeditions against the Nandi but they failed to suppress the Nandi forces. The British decided to use another attempt by calling a meeting to reach some terms with the Nandi’s, but that meeting was a disguise aimed at murdering the Nandi leader. They murdered Koitalel continued to resist until 1907 when some of the members were sent to exile. Finally, the Nandi were defeated by the British forces and since then British took control over the land of Nandi. 

2. The Large Scale African Resistance 

The large scale African resistance against colonial rule took place in various areas and covered a large part and in other cases involved a number of ethnic groups. Some case studies about African resistance' from different areas in African continent are discussed below;

A. MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE (1905- 1907) 

It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African resistance to European rule. Samori fought a long defensive battle against the French. Lobengula saw the futility of military resistance. People such as Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance. Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first; were persuaded to rebel against the European later. Often a rekindling of traditional religious belief was combined with armed rebellion. An example of such a revolt was the Maji-Maji Rising of 1905-1907 in Tanzania. 

The Majimaji resistance broke out in the southern Tanganyika against the German control. This is a large and popular African uprising in Africa. The term "Majimaji" is derived from Swahili word "Maji" which -means water. Majimaji was magic water drawn from river Rufiji and mixed up with maize and millet flour after mixing up the water was thrown on the various fighters so as to protect them from German bullets in war, The leader of the Maji maji uprising was known as Kinjekitile Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in Southern Tanganyika. He organized his followers 'and began to fight in July 1905, the Matumbi of Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up arms. 

Majimaji uprising was highly mobilized and its followers possessed courage as well as determination against the German rule in Tanganyika. It took a wide coverage' and speeded very fast from Matumbi of Nandele in Rufiji to other areas like Uluguru, Masasi, the Makonde plateau, Songea, the Kilombero Valley, North Dar es Salaam and the Mahenge plateau. In these areas African communities such as Zaramo, Ngoni, Bena, Mwera, Ngindo, Pogoro, Mbunga, Ndendeule and Luguru united together to fight against German rule. 

Causes of Majimaji Resistance 

(i)         The forced cotton growing that was ordered by the German government in 1902. The Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton plots where African communities of southern Tanzania had to work with little pay or provide a free labour, they also worked under inhuman. This situation dissatisfied the people and decided to take up arms against Germans.

(ii)           Forced labour was another African grievance. Africans were forced to work on railway construction as well as settler farms. Africans were humiliated by the Germans and friends while working. Generally, the colonial treatment towards Africans was inhuman.  

(iii)        The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by he Germans, the taxes were unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For example, the tax imposed for hut was to be paid in form of money for about three rupees. But Africans did not have money; the only way of getting money was through selling labour power to the Germans to earn money to pay different taxes imposed. The collection of tax aimed at raising the revenue for the colonial administration but this system was new to the Africans. They were also discontented because the colonialist used their land for production while at the same time forced them to pay taxes.

(iv)        The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs and practices, such as dances and circumcision. They overlooked the African religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the areas of African witchcraft. The disruption of traditional practices disappointed the Africans thus decided to stage resistance against Germans.    

(v)         The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German appointees, such as the Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African people brutally. Their ruthless ruling system also discredited Africans hence lived like slaves.    

(vi)            African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most of the young men felt that they had lost their manhood by submitting to the Germans. The German occupation at the initial stage involved different ways which resulted into disunity among the Africans. Later Africans realized the need to unite together so as to-fight against common enemy, that is, German foreigners.

(vii)     Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication exercised by German mercenaries and their houseboys. These practices were crimes to African communities and the offenders had to be punished. This was predominant among the Ngindo communities. But the Germans and their houseboys exercised all the practices that were regarded as crimes and disregarded the Ngindo taboo. The local communities, especially the Ngindo, were discontented with these events hence took up arms against Germans.

(viii)      The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898. During the initial stage of imposing German rule, a large number of Ngoni people were murdered and their properties destroyed or taken by German forces. This event created bitterness, hence resulting into taking up of arms by Ngoni’s against Germans.

(ix)       The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an. effective leader with ability of organizing people, instilled confidence in the African people by requesting them to unite and take up arms against the German invaders. The Kinjekitile's force believed that they would be immune to German bullets as the water sprinkled on them would turn the bullets into water.  The Majimaji resistance ended in. 1907 and African forces were defeated by the Germans. Many fighters were killed and those who survived lost the hope as the 'magic' water had failed to protect them from German bullets. Most of the fighters escaped to Mozambique, many were hanged while others surrendered to the Germans. 

Causes for African Defeat 

(i)            Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and outdated guns against their enemies who used superior automatic machines like machine guns. They also lacked fighting skills and were poorly organized as opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well trained and organized.

(ii)         The, Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and mercenary soldiers from Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these reinforced the Germans and led to emergence of large army, which could attack Africans strongly and effectively.

(iii)         The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They failed to communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group fought in isolation in different areas and their leaders had different motives and grievances.

(iv)         Failure of magic water 'Majimaji' to turn German bullets into water and protect the African fighters. A large number of the warriors were killed during the war hence others lost faith over their religion.

(v)         The Majimaji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to cooperate a number of African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe in the interior. These powerful communities could bring support to African forces.

(vi)      The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This policy involved destruction of African residences and destroying crops and property, thus famine caused deaths among –the African fighters since many of them were starving.

Impacts of Majimaji Resistance 

(i)            The Majimaji resistance made Germans ruler to reform their administration so as to avoid, another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms were made under Governor Lord Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes towards Africans. Governor Rothenberg introduced some important measures to improve Africa services, like education and health, farming and communication system. He also rejected extra taxation of Africans and abolished corporal punishment; The Governor recognized traditional chiefs, stopped forced labour and began to punish German settlers who mistreated the African workers.  

(ii)       It brought together many African communities such as Ngindo, Zaramo, Ngoni and Matumbi to resist against the European invaders

(iii)          It led to the destruction of properties since the Germans used the scorched-earth policy which involved burning of villages and crops in all areas with African forces.

(iv)       A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans, including their leaders and soldiers, were killed by the German forces while other people died of diseases and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became depopulated

(v)         The Majimaji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine since the German soldiers destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This period of famine was known as funga funga period among the people of southeastern Tanganyika.

(vi)         The Majimaji resistance led to the displacement of many African families during the war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to different directions to look for other areas of settlement where they thought to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation among the African communities.

(vii)       The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika, because after the uprising Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and disregarded their ethnic differences.

B. REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA 

(i) Reaction to French invasion Senegambia 

French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then under Samori Toure. The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger. They had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior. However, the power base of African ruling classes lay in the control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict between the French imperialists forces and the African rulers. 

The French employed a number of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize existing local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling groups. To be able to conquer Senegambia, the French formed alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the French managed to' conquer and subjugate the weaker states.

(ii) Reaction to French Invasion of Guinea 

Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking back to the earlier period of his life. 

Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a -farmer who had strongly family connections with the Dyula, the trading community of the Malinke people. The Dyula lived in the great commercial centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt separating the inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu, Taghaza and Walata. Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried by the Dyula merchants and exchanged with forest products such as palm oil, kola nuts, and ivory. Firearms also occupied a very important position in-this trade. 

At the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be allowed to join the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business and made many contacts throughout the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted in 1852 when his mother 'was made captive by Soni Birama, the King of Bisandugu.Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in return for his mother's freedom. 

Samori's power and leadership attracted many followers and within a few years he found that he was strong enough to be independent of Soni Birama, He set out to control the whole of Malinke land and thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and supported, by his family. 

By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone to the Ivory Coast in the West from Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the south. His authority was based more on his military power than on his religious leadership. His arm was composed of young captives, soldiers trained mostly as foot soldiers-the infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve thousand fully equipped soldiers. 

Samori determined to defend commercial centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire and maintain regular supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped by the Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through trade with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful craftsmen who repaired and even made guns. 

In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards Bamako. They demanded that Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the demand and managed to keep the French off up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted guerrilla warfare. He organized an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy troop movements. 

Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)?

(i)          The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French' aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.

(ii)            Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.  

(iii)          Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure    

(iv)         The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas which they claimed belonged to them.

(v)               Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms.

Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?  
  

(i)               Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in emergence, cases to help the permanent army.

(ii)         Modern weapons. Samori Toure had excess to modern arms that he had acquired from the coastal traders' that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some time, lie also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and repaired his defected weapons.

(iii)       Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and colanuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services.

(iv)        Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French army where they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of the Army.

(v)            He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.

(vi)          Samori Toure established state control of agriculture and markets to ensured regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.

(vii)        The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and right raids. This helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. The French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control

(viii)         He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they reached the area.

(ix)        Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national war of defense. This support helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time.

Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated? 

(i)              Anglo–French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori’s armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori’s access to arms supplies. In the same year British forced occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military alliance with Ashanti.

(ii)       Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the' ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.    

(iii)         Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with Ahmed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori.

(iv)          A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were better-trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern" societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques could never be defeated by warfare.    

(v)              The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.

(vi)            Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine and stirred up local resistances.

(vii)           Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities and non- Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French forces against him.

C. THE MASHONA-MATEBELE (CHIMULENGA) UPRISING IN ZIMBABWE (1896-1897)

The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890. They thought that the Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war. As a result, in 1896, the whites were caught by surprise, for there was a more or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In April 1896, the Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In June of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated by outstanding political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the white men.

The Causes of the uprising.

1. Loss of land. The white alienated the better and fertile land of the Mashona. On the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves, which had water shortage, this caused dissatisfaction and unrests hence people took up arms to resist this situation.
2. Forced Labour. Africans in both Matebele and Mashona were forced to supply labour to the colonial settles. All able bodied men had to work regardless of their former status in the societies and they were recruited by armed force.
3. Harsh treatment. The colonialists treated the Mashona and Matebele people harshly. The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable.
4. Taxation policies. In 1894, Hut tax was introduced; some of the Shona chiefs and their people refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as British ways of collecting taxes. Those who failed to pay tax were persecuted and jailed without trial.
5. Low wages. Africans who were forced to work in mines and whites farms were paid lowly although they worked for long hours and heavy works.
6. The abolition of Induna age regiments among the Matebele. The Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Indunas were deprived of their power, importance and position.
7. Interference in the Shona trade. The desire of British South Africa Company to control trade in the Mashona land contributed to the uprising.
8. Desire for their lost independence. The Ndebele people resisted in order to regain their post independence, none of the Induna was appointed in any responsible administrative position.
9. Missionaries disregarded the traditional and customs of the Shona and Ndebele people. In Matebele land, the missionaries wanted the Ndebele to change their religions based on Mwari cult.

The Effects of the Shona and Ndebele Uprising of 1896-1897

1. The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of them died during the confrontation.
2. The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war indemnity.
3. The company administration received much criticism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.
4. The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.
5. The Ndebele Indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under the BSAC administration.
6. Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.
7. Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele.
8.  Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman.
9.  Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity.
10. The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.
11. The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war.

D. NAMA AND HERERO UPRISING IN NAMIBIA (1904-1907)

The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880’s and 1890’s. The region was inhabited by three main ethnic groups, the first and second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture, The history of Namibia in the nineteenth century was characterized by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero who angered in Pastoralism and hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was intensified since this foreigner' s used the rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them against the Nama. But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama leader Hedrick Witbooi since he understood the nature and real aims of Germans.

Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere subordinate chief under the German government. The Nama and Herero rivalry threatened the German missionaries. Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over Namibia; they also occupied the region effectively. The German government introduced the settler policy between 1884 and 1904, which affected both the Nama, and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances which resulted into uprising.

Causes of Nama and Herero uprising

i.                Cattle raiding that were done frequently by the German traders and settlers. As cattle was among of the treasured commodity among the Nama and Herero communities, robbing of cattle threatening the economic interest of African commodities.

ii.              The imposition of forced labour in 1896. German wanted labour to work in plantations and in construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The German government used force to obtained laborers which discontented the Africans; thus decided to take up arms and against the Germans.

iii.            Land alienation. This includes grabbing of the best grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. German government reserved the land for settler settlement which in turn created hostility between African communities and Germans.

iv.               Imposition of taxes. The German imposed tax that had to be paid by Africans, they began to demand tax in 1896 and in order to make effective collection of taxes they use force which led Africans to resist by taking up arms against the Germans.

v.         The destruction of traditional authority, after they had established their control over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example they imposed some policies without consulting some traditional chiefs from Africans.

vi.             Harassment to the Herero indebted people by German following the credit ordinance of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in one year time, after which the debt would be invalid.

vii.           The outbreak of rinder pest diseases, which killed about 90% of Nama and Herero’s cattle in 1903. This affected their economy many sold their land to German settler in order to sustain their life. But the rinder pests diseases was interpreted by religious leaders punishment from God since the Nama and Herero cooperated by the whites, thus the people had to resist against the German so as to get rid of these misfortunes.

viii.       The German control over religious beliefs. The Nama believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious leaders, but when their beliefs were threatened by Germans, chiefs organized and motivated his subjects to resists against the German.

The Effects of Nama and Herero uprising

i.           After the uprising, the Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could not enable to live in conducive environment and good life.

ii.             The chief township in Namibia was officially abolished by German government.

iii.           Namibia became a Germans colony and German administration continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had very minimal effect compared to that of Majimaji in Tanganyika.

iv.           The African communities, such as Herero lost their life, only 16,000 Herero survived out of previous population on 80,000, whereas only 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20,000 people who lived in 1892.

v.        There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example up to 1903 the number of German was about 4,640 but after the war the number increased to 14,840 in 1913.

vi.        After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where Africans women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour.

After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907 though the German reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the First World War. 

WHY ETHIOPIA ESCAPED COLONIALISM 

Ethiopia was the only country in Africa that escaped colonialism. By 19^th century all African nations had been dominated by the colonialists save Ethiopia there are various reasons that explain why Ethiopia managed to escape colonialism, these include the following forces; 

1. The defeat of Italy in the battle of Adowa in 1896 made other European countries to fear to colonize Ethiopia; they thought that they might be defeated like Italy.
2. The existence of powerful Emperors like emperor Theodore who once proposed to marry the queen of England, Emperor Yahannes 1867-1876, Emperor Menelik, these powerful leaders consolidated Ethiopia and made it strong enough to be colonized.
3.  The existence of Ahamaric language which promoted solidarity and unity within the Ethiopian society that made it solid able enough to resist the European powers from colonizing her.
4.  Poor geographical position and bad climatic condition such as- infertile soils; rocky lands and mountains of Ethiopia discouraged many Europeans to colonize it.
5. Accessibility the modern weapons from Europe. After the Brussels treaty of 1890 in Belgium, Ethiopia managed to get more weapons from Europe to defend her self.
6. The military strategic position of Ethiopia she is a mountainous country which could strategically able to defend her self from any intruder.
7. The existence of Christianity ever since even before the advent of colonialist in Africa. Christianity has been adopted as a state religion; it brought awareness, civilization and unity among the Ethiopians which made it impossible to be colonized easily.
8.  Divisions among European powers during the colonization of Africa, every capitalist country was fighting alone to get more colonies, emperor Menelik used such chance to defend his country.
9.  The weakness of Italian army. Italy had just unified was not strong enough, this enabled Ethiopia to defeat her at the battle of Adowa in 1896.

Significance of the Early Resistances.

                    i.    Primary resistances helped to shape the environment of later African politics because of their impacts upon the thinking and action of the colonial authorities. The formation of TANU in Tanganyika had connection with Maji Maji and other associations.

                  ii.    Primary resistances brought about the collapse of the commercial companies, which were at first employed by the German and British to open East Africa spheres of influence. So this forced the two governments to take direct responsibility.

                iii.     Primary resistances helped to change the early European attitudes of superiority. The thinking of administrators and settlers especially in Tanganyika and Southern Rhodesia after Maji Maji and Shona and Ndebele rising of 1896-1897, were dominated by fear of the repetition of such horrible outbreaks.

                iv.      Primary resistances showed Europeans that Africans were not willing to be colonized by Europeans. They wanted to remain' with their traditional ways of living.

                  v.    Primary resistances displayed African grievances to the Europeans, e.g. Land alienation, forced cultivation, taxation, and low wages.

                vi.      Primary resistances forced Europeans to change their methods of ruling Africans. For example, in Tanganyika after the Maji Maji war the Germans made changes in their way of ruling including land ownership, taxation, whipping people in public etc. 

Why African Resistance Failed?

It is true that many societies resisted against Europeans invaders but most of those resistance failed and African were defeated. The failure of Africans reactions was associated with the numbers of factors such as;

1. Disunity among the African rulers. The Africans failed to unite together to fight for their enemy. Example in West Africa, Tanganyika, Angola, Namibia and Central Africa.
2. Internal political factions in some Africa states contributed towards the defeat. Due to the disarray of many African states there was no time for cohesion to be against the enemy.
3.  Military and modern technology superiority of Europeans. Due to industrial revolution in Europe they were able to manufacture superior firearms which were used during the war against the Africans who most of them were using poor weapons.
4.  A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat African. The colonial armies were better trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics.
5. The Europeans wanted to maintain and preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly. 
6.  Instability and public misery of Africans. Most of Africans were fought with bitterness which culminate into greater devastation, villages were burnt, farmland destroyed and animals looted. This ended up with gross loss of property, fear and famine.
7. Religious division created serious problems for African unity. Religious disunity poisoned the cohesion of Africans. E.g. antagonism existed between Tijaniyya and Quidirrija brother in Algeria facilitated failure of resistance against the French.
8. The unpopularity of some African leaders to their subjects led European victory.
9. Natural calamities such as famine, drought and epidemic made it difficult for Africans to maintain stiff resistance.

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TOPIC NO 2: COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM